A variety of subsidies has enabled rapid development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. The battery industry received at least EUR 1.7 billion in grants and loan guarantees from the EU budget between 2014 and 2020. Since 2019, EU member states have provided over EUR 6.57 billion in state aid through IPCEI and regional aid programs.[71] With dual subsidy support, the EU now hosts 10 gigafactories and 20 under-construction plants for battery production, meeting two-thirds of the EU’s market demand for batteries.[72] From 2022 to 2023, the EU’s share of global lithium battery exports grew from 28.2% to 30.3%.[73] In the photovoltaic sector, EU funds and state aid totaled at least EUR 8.6 billion and EUR 23.6 billion, respectively. These subsidies drove over 40% annual growth in photovoltaic installations from 2021 to 2023,[74] while EU solar panel exports rose 19% in value and 37% in quantity from 2022 to 2023.[75] In the electric vehicle sector, EU funds and state aid reached at least EUR 22 billion and EUR 10.8 billion, respectively. By 2023, the EU surpassed 630,000 public charging points, with an 84% increase in DC chargers.[76] EU electric vehicle exports also surged to EUR 22.3 billion in 2022, marking a 100% increase from 2021 and a 400% rise from 2019.[77]